Oral hygiene practices and associated factors among rural communities in northwest Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Poor oral hygiene affects the overall health and quality of life. However, the oral hygiene practice in rural communities and contributing factors are not well documented. Accordingly, this study was conducted to assess oral hygiene practices and associated factors among rural communities in northwest Ethiopia. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 1190 households. Data were collected using a structured and pretested questionnaire, prepared based on a review of relevant literature. The questionnaire comprises socio-demographic information, access to health and hygiene messages, oral hygiene practices, and water quality. We assessed oral hygiene practices with these criteria: mouth wash with clean water in every morning, mouth wash with clean water after eating, brushing teeth regularly, and avoiding gum pricking. Gum pricking in this study is defined as sticking needles or wires into gums to make the gums black for beauty. Multivariable logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with oral hygiene practices. Significant associations were declared on the basis of adjusted odds ratio with 95% confidence interval and p-values < 0.05. RESULTS: Results showed that all the family members usually washed their mouth with clean water in everyday morning and after eating in 65.2% and 49.6% of the households, respectively. Furthermore, 29.9% of the households reported that all the family members regularly brushed their teeth using toothbrush sticks and one or more of the family members in 14.5% of the households had gum pricking. Overall, 42.9% (95% CI: 39.9, 45.6%) of the households had good oral hygiene practices. Health and/or hygiene education was associated with good oral hygiene practices in the area (AOR: 1.66, 95% CI: 1.26, 2.21). CONCLUSION: More than half of the households had poor oral hygiene practices in the area and cleaning of teeth with toothpastes is not practiced in the area, where as gum pricking is practiced in more than one-tenth of the households. The local health department needs provide community-level oral health education/interventions, such as washing mouth with clean water at least twice a day, teeth brushing using indigenous methods such as toothbrush sticks or modern methods such as toothpastes, and avoiding gum pricking to promote oral health.

Prevalence of chronic respiratory symptoms and associated factors among woodwork workers in Bahir Dar City, Ethiopia; a comparative cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to wood dust can cause respiratory symptoms, like cough, phlegm, breathlessness, and chest pain, reduce lung function. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to assess the prevalence of respiratory symptoms and associated factors among woodwork workers in Bahir-Dar city, Ethiopia. METHODS: A comparative cross-sectional study was employed among 229 exposed and 228 unexposed groups. Participants for the study were selected using simple random sampling technique. The chronic respiratory symptoms were assessed using a questionnaire adopted from the American Thoracic Society. The data was entered using Epi-Data version 4.6 and export to SPSS version 22 for analysis. Poisson regression, Multivariate linear regression and multivariable logistic regression analysis were used to identify factors associated with woodworkers, general population and in pooled analysis. RESULT: The prevalence of having at least one chronic respiratory symptom was higher among exposed group (59.4%) than unexposed group (18.0%) with PR = 3.03(95%CI: 2.45, 4.45). In woodworker; Not taking health and safety training(5.15,95%(CI:1.93-13.76),primary educational(3.85,95%,CI:(1.1,13.47), not using Mask(6.38, 95%CI:(2.69-15.76) & number of families(3.05,95%,CI:1.04-9.028), In general population; Number of family members(2.75, 95%CI:1.1-7.19)& lower monthly income (3.3, 95%CI: (1.49-7.4), and In pooled analysis; wood dust exposure status 14.36 95%, CI:(7.6-27.00),primary education(2.93,95%CI:1.24-6.92), number of families(3.46,95%CI:1.8-6.64), lower monthly income(2.13,95%CI:1.19-3.81), & smoking (6.65, 95%CI:1.19-36.9) were associated with respiratory symptom. CONCLUSION: Prevalence of respiratory symptoms was higher among exposed group than unexposed group. Reduced wood dust exposure status, Provision of occupational safety and health training, use of respiratory protective devices is recommended to reduce respiratory symptoms among woodwork workers.

Prevalence and risk factors of chronic respiratory symptoms in public and private school teachers in north-western Ethiopia: results from a multicentre cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate the prevalence and risk factors of chronic respiratory symptoms among school teachers in Gondar city, north-western Ethiopia. DESIGN: A school-based cross-sectional study was conducted from April to May 2019. A self-administered British Medical Research Council Questionnaire was used to assess chronic respiratory symptoms. Data were entered into Epi Info V.7 and Stata V.14 was used for analysis. A multivariable logistic regression analysis was conducted to identify factors associated with chronic respiratory symptoms. The association was determined using adjusted OR (AOR) with a 95% CI at a value of p<0.05. SETTING: The study was conducted in public and private schools in Gondar city. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 822 teachers participated in this study. OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome is the prevalence of chronic respiratory symptoms. RESULTS: The total response rate was 97.4%. The majority, 532 (64.7%) of the participants, were male. The mean age (±SD) of the respondents was 36.69 (±6.93) years. The total prevalence of chronic respiratory symptoms in the previous 12 months among teachers in Gondar city was found to be 31.14% (95% CI 27.99% to 34.43%). A family history of respiratory problems (AOR=1.90; 95% CI 1.07 to 3.37), an overweight body mass index (AOR=2.57; 95% CI 1.57 to 4.21), exposure to secondhand cigarette smoke at home (AOR=9.85; 95% CI 4.77 to 20.33), use of chalk (AOR=1.97; 95% CI 1.25 to 3.09), and failure to open windows during class (AOR=2.15; 95% CI 1.02 to 4.52) were risk factors for chronic respiratory symptoms. CONCLUSION: This study concluded that the prevalence of chronic respiratory symptoms was high among teachers. Making a smoking-free zone, avoiding smoking in public places, improving the ventilation conditions of the classrooms and controlling the chalk dust are all necessary actions to take to reduce chronic respiratory symptoms.

Hand hygiene practice and associated factors among rural communities in northwest Ethiopia.

This community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 1190 randomly selected rural households in northwest Ethiopia to assess hand hygiene practice and associated factors. Frequent handwashing with rubbing agents, drying mechanisms; and condition of fingernails were used to assess hand hygiene practice. Multivariable binary logistic regression analysis was used to identify factors associated with hand hygiene and statistically significant association was declared on the basis of adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) and p-values < 0.05. Results showed that 28.8% (95% CI 26.2, 31.4%) of the households had good hand hygiene practice. Good hand hygiene practice was significantly associated with formal education attended household heads (AOR 1.79, 95% CI 1.33, 2.40), family discussion on sanitation (AOR 1.56, 95% CI 1.08, 2.26), provision of health education (AOR 2.23, 95% CI 1.62, 3.06), and availability of water (AOR 3.51, 95% CI 1.02, 12.05). In conclusion, about one-third of the rural households had good hand hygiene practice and more than two-third had poor hand hygiene practice in the study area, and this may imply that hands in the area may play roles in spreading infections in the community. Therefore, people need to be informed to always keep their hand hygiene good.

Enteric infections and management practices among communities in a rural setting of northwest Ethiopia.

Infections with enteric pathogens have a high mortality and morbidity burden, as well as significant social and economic costs. Poor water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) conditions are the leading risk factors for enteric infections, and prevention in low-income countries is still primarily focused on initiatives to improve access to improved WASH facilities. Rural communities in developing countries, on the other hand, have limited access to improved WASH services, which may result in a high burden of enteric infections. Limited information also exists about the prevalence of enteric infections and management practices among rural communities. Accordingly, this study was conducted to assess enteric infections and management practices among communities in a rural setting of northwest Ethiopia. A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 1190 randomly selected households in a rural setting of northwest Ethiopia. Data were collected using structured and pretested interviewers-administered questionnaire and spot-check observations. We used self-reports and medication history audit to assess the occurrence of enteric infections among one or more of the family members in the rural households. Multivariable binary logistic regression model was used to identify factors associated with enteric infections. Statistically significant association was declared on the basis of adjusted odds ratio with 95% confidence interval and p value < 0.05. Out of a total of 1190 households, 17.4% (95% CI: 15.1, 19.7%) of the households reported that one or more of the family members acquired one or more enteric infections in 12 months period prior to the survey and 470 of 6089 (7.7%) surveyed individuals had one or more enteric infections. The common enteric infections reported at household-level were diarrhea (8.2%), amoebiasis (4.1%), and ascariasis (3.9%). Visiting healthcare facilities (71.7%), taking medications without prescriptions (21.1%), and herbal medicine (4.5%) are the common disease management practices among rural households in the studied region. The occurrence of one or more enteric infections among one or more of the family members in rural households in 12 months period prior to the survey was statistically associated with presence of livestock (AOR: 2.24, 95% CI:1.06, 4.75) and households headed by uneducated mothers (AOR: 1.62, 95% CI: (1.18, 2.23). About one-fifth of the rural households in the studied region reported that one or more of the family members had one or more enteric infections. Households in the study area might acquire enteric infections from different risk factors, mainly poor WASH conditions and insufficient separation of animals including their feces from human domestic environments. It is therefore important to implement community-level interventions such as utilization of improved latrine, protecting water sources from contamination, source-based water treatment, containment of domestic animals including their waste, community-driven sanitation, and community health champion.

Access to basic drinking water services, safe water storage, and household water treatment practice in rural communities of northwest Ethiopia.

Protecting water from cross contamination at source and point of use is an important strategy to improve water quality. However, water safety measures at the source and point of use may not be implemented in the rural communities. This community-based cross-sectional study was, therefore, conducted among 1190 randomly selected households in a rural setting of northwest Ethiopia to assess access to basic drinking water services, safe water storage, and household water treatment practices. Water service level was determined using JMP criteria and practices that prevent cross contamination of water at point of use were used to determine safe water storage. Results showed that 23.0% of the households had access to basic water services; 37.0% practiced safe water storage; and 15.4% practiced one or more household water treatment methods. Public taps (54.5%) and protected spring (25.1%) were the common water sources to rural communities in northwest Ethiopia. Boiling (43.2%), chlorination or water guard (26.8%), and plain sedimentation (23.0%) were among the household water treatment methods commonly practiced in the area. In conclusion, rural households in the studied region has low access to basic water services. Safe water storage practice was also low in the area and household water treatment is not commonly practiced.

Pesticide Use Knowledge, Attitude, Practices and Practices Associated Factors Among Floriculture Workers in Bahirdar City, North West, Ethiopia, 2020.

Pesticides are substances that are used to kill, decrease, or repel pests and are used extensively to boost agricultural production. Ethiopian floriculture is one of the pesticide-intensive agricultural production centers and it provides jobs for 1000s of Ethiopians. Despite its significant contribution to the national economy, many issues are raised by the workers. The study aimed to assess the knowledge, attitudes, practices, and factors associated with the practices of workers against pesticide exposure among floriculture workers in Bahirdar city. A cross-sectional occupational study was done. The participants were recruited using a stratified sample technique. The final study participants were chosen using a simple random sampling procedure. The survey received 300 responses, 95.2% response rate from the entire sample size. The mean age of floriculture workers was 20 (SD ± 3.21) years, with a range of 17 to 48 years. The majority of workers (228) were females, and 36 (12.0%) of workers were illiterate. About 259 (86.3%) of floriculture workers did not know the name of the pesticide they were using. More than three-fourth 256 (85.3%) of respondents know at least one type of pesticide-related health problem. In this study, the most known type of pesticide routes of entry into the body were eyes (72.3%), skin (67.3%) followed by ingestion (67.0%). About 100 (33.3%) of the participants had good overall knowledge related to pesticide use and 134 (44.7%) of workers had a positive attitude on safe pesticide application. The level of good practice was 61.3% (N = 184). Knowing the impact of pesticide on environment (AOR, 0.54; 95% CI, 0.30-0.96), Knowing pesticide health problems, (AOR, 0.36; 95% CI, 0.20-0.63), willingness to wear and invest for PPE (AOR, 0.53; 95% CI, 0.28-0.98) and PPE supply (AOR, 0.29; 95% CI, 0.16-0.51) were significantly associated with workers pesticide handling practices. Workers who didn't know pesticide health problems were 36% less likely to have a good practice. The likelihood of having good practices among works who disagree to wear and invest on PPE 53% lower than those who agree on it. The likelihood of having good practices among workers who didn't have any PPE supply was lower than their counterparts with (AOR, 0.29; 95% CI, 0.16-0.51). Floriculture workers had poor handling practices therefore continuous pesticide training programs for workers could be implemented.

Vector-Borne Diseases and Associated Factors in the Rural Communities of Northwest Ethiopia: A Community-Based Cross-Sectional Study.

BACKGROUND: Human illnesses caused by parasites, viruses, and bacteria that are transmitted by vectors are called vector-borne diseases. Vector-borne diseases usually affect the poorest populations, particularly where there is a lack of access to adequate housing, safe drinking water, and sanitation. This community-based cross-sectional study was, conducted to assess the prevalence of self-reported vector-borne diseases and associated factors in the rural communities of northwest Ethiopia. METHODS: A community-based cross-sectional study design with structured observation was conducted among 1191 randomly selected rural households in northwest Ethiopia from April to June 2017. Data were collected by using a structured questionnaire; and observation checklist. Multivariable binary logistic regression analysis was used to identify variables associated with the prevalence of self-reported vector-borne diseases on the basis of adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) and P-values <.05. RESULTS: In the current study, 216 (18.1%) of the rural households reported one or more vector-borne diseases. Scabies (9.5%) were the most reported vector-borne disease followed by Malaria (6.9%). The prevalence of self-reported vector-borne diseases was statistically associated with the head of the family (mother) (AOR = 0.13, 95% CI = 0.02-0.72), regular cleaning of the living environment (AOR = 0.51, 95% CI = 0.36-0.74), poor cleanness of the living rooms (AOR = 1.77, 95% CI = 1.03-3.03), and moderate cleanness of the floor (AOR = 1.64, 95% CI = 1.06-2.52). CONCLUSION: The prevalence of self-reported vector-borne diseases was high in the rural communities of northwest Ethiopia. The low prevalence was associated with family head; regular cleaning of living environment and cleanness of the floor. Designing and strengthening an intervention strategy for environmental sanitation, regular cleaning of living house, and keeping personal hygiene shall be considered.

Human Ectoparasites Are Highly Prevalent in the Rural Communities of Northwest Ethiopia: A Community-Based Cross-Sectional Study.

BACKGROUND: Ectoparasites are organisms which inhabit the skin or outgrowths of the skin of another organism (the host). Many ectoparasites are known to be vectors of pathogens, which the parasites typically transmit to hosts. Though, ectoparasites are common in the vulnerable groups and economically disadvantaged communities, there is limited evidence on its magnitude in Ethiopia. This community-based cross-sectional study was, therefore, conducted to assess the prevalence and associated factors of ectoparasites in the rural communities of northwest Ethiopia. METHODS: A community-based cross-sectional study design with structured observation was conducted among 1191 randomly selected rural households in northwest Ethiopia in May 2016. Data were collected using structured interviewer administered interview questionnaire and structured observation checklist. Prevalence of human ectoparasites in the rural communities was defined as the presence of one or more lice, fleas, bed bugs, mites, and ticks and the presence of these ectoparasites were observed by trained environmental health experts. Multivariable binary logistic regression analysis was used to identify variables associated with prevalence of ectoparasites on the basis of adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) and P values <.05. RESULTS: Of a total of 1191 rural households, human or hair lice were observed in one or more of the family members in 186 (15.6%) rural households. Similarly, fleas were observed in more than half, 609 (51.1%) of rural households and bed bugs were observed in 441 (37%) rural households. Furthermore, mites and ticks were reported in 113 (9.5%) and 130 (10.9%) of the households respectively. Accordingly, one or more ectoparasites were observed in 865 of 1191 rural households. The presence of one or more ectoparasites was, therefore, found to be 72.6% (95% CI = 70%-75.1%). The prevalence of ectoparasites was statistically associated with educational status of the female head being not educated (AOR = 1.476, 95% CI = 1.001, 2.177) and absence close supervision by health extension workers (AOR = 2.151, 95% CI = 1.205, 3.843). CONCLUSION: The prevalence of one or more ectoparasites was high in the rural communities of northwest Ethiopia. The high prevalence was associated with education status of the female head and close supervision of households by health extension workers. Disseminating health information about intervention strategies of ectoparasites and closely supervising the rural households need to be considered.

Self-Reported Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders and Associated Factors among Restaurant Workers in Gondar City, Northwest Ethiopia, 2020.

Introduction: Globally, work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) have resulted in occupational disability and injury. Of these, restaurant workers are among the high-risk professionals usually affected by WMSDs. In Ethiopia, evidence on the burden of musculoskeletal disorder and contributing factors among restaurant workers were very limited. Therefore, this study was aimed at assessing the prevalence of self-reported WMSDs and contributing factors among restaurant workers in Gondar city, northwest Ethiopia, 2020. Methods: An institutional-based cross-sectional study was conducted from February 2020 to March 2020 among restaurant workers in Gondar city. A two-stage sampling technique was used to choose 633 study subjects. A structured Nordic questioner was used to collect the data. Data was entered into EpiData version 3.1 and exported to Stata version 14.0 for analysis. Both bivariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were computed. An adjusted odds ratio with a 95% confidence interval was used to measure the association between WMSDs and independent variables. In the multivariable analysis, a P value of <0.05 was used to declare a statistically significant association. To check the goodness of fit, the Hosmer and Lemeshow test was used. Results: The prevalence of WMSDs among restaurant workers in the past 12 months was 81.5% [95% CI (78.18-84.44)]. Attending primary education [AOR: 2.14, 95% CI (1.17-3.90)], attending secondary education [AOR: 1.71 (1.02-2.86)], and job satisfaction [AOR: 1.90, 95%CI (1.13-3.19)] were significantly associated with WMSDs. Conclusion: In this study, the prevalence of WMSDs among restaurant workers was high. The upper back, lower back, elbow, and wrist were the most affected body parts. Age above 30 years, educational status being primary and secondary, and being dissatisfied by their job were positively associated with a high prevalence of WMSDs.

Hand hygiene compliance and associated factors among health care providers in Central Gondar zone public primary hospitals, Northwest Ethiopia.

Background: Poor hand hygiene compliance is one in all the leading contributory factors to healthcare-associated infections. This is an important source of complications across the continuum of care and poses a serious threat to people admitted to hospitals. However, the magnitude and associated factors of hand hygiene compliance in public primary hospitals were not well investigated in Ethiopia. Therefore, this study was conducted to assess hand hygiene compliance and associated factors among health care providers in Central Gondar Zone public primary hospitals, Northwest Ethiopia. Methods: An Institutional based cross-sectional study was conducted from March to April 2019 among health care providers. The data were collected using self-administered questionnaires and observational checklists. Using Epi Info 3.1, data was entered and analyzed using SPSS version 23. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and logistic regression models. A p-value less than 0.05 with 95% confidence interval was used to declare statistical significance. Results: Of 335 study participants, 50 (14.9%), had good hand hygiene compliance. Training on hand hygiene (AOR = 8.07, 95%CI: 2.91, 22.39), availability of adequate soap and water for hand hygiene (AOR = 5.10, 95%CI: 1.93, 13.52), availability of alcohol-based hand rub (AOR = 3.23, 95%CI: 1.32, 7.92), knowledge about hand hygiene (AOR = 6.74, 95%CI: 2.96, 15.34) and attitude towards hand hygiene (AOR = 2.15, 95%CI: 1.04, 4.46) were factors associated with hand hygiene compliance. Conclusion: The overall level of hand hygiene compliance among health care providers was poor. Training, availability of adequate soap and water, availability of alcohol-based hand rub, knowledge on hand hygiene, and attitude of health care providers were significantly associated with hand hygiene compliance.

Workplace injury and associated factors among construction workers in Gondar town, Northwest Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: The construction industry is one of the most hazardous working areas, where the highest number of labourers engaged. However, the predisposing factors for occupational injury in the construction sites in Ethiopia are not well investigated. This study was, therefore, conducted to assess the magnitude of occupational injury and associated factors among construction workers in Gondar town, northwest Ethiopia. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was conducted on 566 construction workers. Systematic random sampling technique was used to select study subjects. Data were collected using structured questionnaire and observation checklist. Multivariable binary logistic regression analysis was used to identify variables significantly associated with occupational injury on the basis of adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) and p < 0.05. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of work-related injury in 3 months prior to the survey was found to be 39% (95% CI = 35.0-43.1%). The occurrence of occupational injury was associated with single workers [AOR = 0.50, 95% CI = 0.25, 0.97], longer service year [AOR = 2.79, 95% CI = 1.72-4.53], poor attention to work [AOR = 2.65, 95% CI = 1.33, 5.29], working with vibrating hand tools [AOR = 3.23, 95% CI = 1.19, 8.76], no aware about occupational hazards [AOR = 4.66, 95% CI = 1.99, 10.87], and alcohol consumption [AOR = 3.16, 95% CI = 2.09, 4.79]. CONCLUSION: High prevalence of occupational injury was reported in the study area. Cut and fall were the leading causes. Marital status, service year, attention to work, use of vibrating hand tools, awareness about occupational hazards, and drinking alcohol were identified as factors associated with occupational injury. Therefore, health and safety trainings have to be taken place to aware workers about occupational injury and safety issues. Regular workplace supervision and provision of appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) are also needed to prevent occupational injury. The findings of this study are useful to design and implement injury prevention strategies in the country. The study also contributes to the current literature as health and safety information is limited, especially in developing countries.

Factors associated with food safety practices among food handlers: facility-based cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: The primary objective of this study was to assess factors associated with food safety practices among food handlers in Gondar city food and drinking establishments. The facility-based cross-sectional study was undertaken from March 3 to May 28, 2018, in Gondar city. Simple random sampling method was used to select both establishments and the food handlers. The data were collected through face-to-face interview using pre-tested Amharic version of the questionnaire. Data were entered and coded into Epi info version 7.0.0 and exported to SPSS version 22 for analysis. RESULTS: One hundred and eighty-eight (49.0%) had good food handling practice out of three hundred and eighty-four food handlers. Marital status (AOR: 0.36, 95% CI 0.05, 0.85), safety training (AOR: 4.01, 95% CI 2.71, 9.77), supervision by health professionals (AOR: 4.10, 95% CI 1.71, 9.77), routine medical checkup (AOR: 8.80, 95% CI 5.04, 15.36), and mean knowledge (AOR: 2.92, 95% CI 1.38, 4.12) were the factors significantly associated with food handling practices. The owners, managers and local health professionals should work on food safety practices improvement.

Socioeconomic Predictors of Intestinal Parasitic Infections Among Under-Five Children in Rural Dembiya, Northwest Ethiopia: A Community-Based Cross-sectional Study.

BACKGROUND: Soil-transmitted helminths and protozoan parasitic infections are endemic throughout the world. The problem of intestinal parasitic infection is higher among developing countries where children are the most vulnerable groups. Although health information related to parasitic infections is available globally, it is often limited in rural setups in least developed countries. This study was, therefore, conducted to assess socioeconomic predictors of intestinal parasitic infections among under-five children in rural Dembiya, Northwest Ethiopia. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was conducted among 224 randomly selected households with under-five children. We used questionnaire to collect data and direct stool examination to identify intestinal parasitic infections. Adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) and P < .05 was used to identify socioeconomic predictors of parasitic infections. RESULTS: We found that 25.4% (95% CI = [20.2, 31.1]) under-five children had intestinal parasitic infection. Ascaris lumbricoides was the leading infection, which accounted 44 of 224 (19.6%). The prevalence of childhood intestinal parasitic infections was higher among households with no members whose education level is secondary and above (AOR = 3.36, 95% CI = [1.23, 9.17]). Similarly, intestinal parasitic infections were statistically associated with presence of 2 under-five children in a household (AOR = 3.56, 95% CI = [1.29, 9.82]), absence of frequent health supervision (AOR = 3.49, 95% CI = [1.72, 7.09]), larger family size (AOR = 2.30, 95% CI = [1.09, 4.85]), and poor household economic status (AOR = 2.58, 95% CI = [1.23, 5.41]). CONCLUSIONS: Significant proportion of children was infected with intestinal parasitic infection in rural Dembiya. Educational status of family members, number of under-five children in a household, health supervision, family size, and wealth index were statistically associated with parasitic infections. Provision of anthelmintic drugs, health supervision, and health education targeted with transmission and prevention of infections are recommended.

Diarrhea Prevalence and Sociodemographic Factors among Under-Five Children in Rural Areas of North Gondar Zone, Northwest Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Diarrheal disease remains one of the principal causes of morbidity and mortality in infants and children in developing countries, including Ethiopia. Risk factors for diarrhea vary by settings and have important implications for developing intervention strategies to reduce the burden of the disease. Thus, the aim of this study was to assess diarrhea prevalence and sociodemographic factors among under-five children in rural areas of North Gondar Zone. METHODS: A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted from April to June 2016 among 736 randomly selected households with one child under five years old. A structured questionnaire was used for collecting information on sociodemographic characteristics and diarrheal occurrence. Data was analyzed using SPSS version 20. The bivariate and multivariable logistic regression analysis were used to determine the association between risk factors and diarrheal occurrence, and a p value < 0.05 was taken as statistically significant. RESULTS: A total of 736 under-five children and their respondents were enrolled during the study period. Almost all respondents were biological mothers 96.4% (709/736), married 94.2% (693/736), and house wives 86% (632/736). The overall prevalence of diarrheal disease among under-five children was 22.1% (163/743). Of these, children with age group of less than one year old, 7.7 % (57/736), were commonly infected with diarrheal diseases. Children less than or equal to one year [AOR=1.82, 95% CI= (1.39, 4.63)], guardians [AOR=4.37, 95% CI= (1.73, 11.1)], and children with no breast feeding practice [AOR=3.13, 95% CI= (1.62, 6.03)] were the major risk factors for the occurrence of diarrhea. CONCLUSION: Childhood diarrhea remains an important health concern in the study area. Occurrence of diarrhea was statistically associated with child age less than or equal to one year, educational status of mother/guardians, and breast feeding. To minimize the magnitude childhood diarrhea, various designing and implementing strategies, such as health education, child care, breast feeding, and weaning practice, integrated with the existing national health extension are quite essential.

High bacterial load of indoor air in hospital wards: the case of University of Gondar teaching hospital, Northwest Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: The air inhaled by people is abundantly populated with microorganisms which also are called bioaerosols. Bioaerosols is a colloidal suspension, formed by liquid droplets and particles of solid matter in the air, whose components contain or have attached to them viruses, fungal spores and conidia, bacterial endospores, plant pollen and fragments of plant tissues. They account for 5-34 % of indoor air pollution. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the bacteriological concentration and to identify specific species of bacteria in the indoor air of Gondar University teaching hospital. Air samples were taken from 14 randomly selected wards. Bacterial measurements were made by passive air sampling technique i.e., the settle plate method. In each ward five Petri dishes were exposed for 30 and 60 min in the morning and afternoon. Bacteria were collected on nutrient agar and blood agar media. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses were conducted. The quantitative analysis was mainly conducted to determine bacterial load or number of bacteria in the indoor air. Bacterial load was enumerated as colony forming units. Qualitative analysis was conducted to identify specific species of bacteria. For this study we have selected Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus which had high public health concern. Mannitol test was used to isolate Staphylococcus aureus, whereas Bacitracin test was conducted to isolate Streptococcus pyogene. RESULT: The result of this study indicated that the highest bacterial load which was 1468 CFU/m(3) has been recorded at 2:00 PM in Ward C at 60 min exposure time and the lowest bacterial concentration (i.e., 480 CFU/m(3)) was recorded at 8:00 AM in physiotherapy ward. Based on the result bacterial concentration of indoor air of Gondar University teaching hospital was found between 480 and 1468 CFU/m(3). The result of one way ANOVA showed that the highest mean bacterial concentration (1271.00 CFU/m(3)) was found in Medical ward and the least (583.25 CFU/m(3)) concentration was found in ward D and the grand total average concentration was 878.43 CFU/m(3). Favorable conditions for growth and multiplication of bacteria like temperature (26.5-29.5 °C), humidity (64.5-85 %), presence of unhygienic attached toilets, poor waste management system and poor ventilation system were observed during the survey. Staphylococcus aureus was identified in 10 wards and Streptococcus pyogenes was isolated in 8 hospital wards. CONCLUSIONS: Compared with different indoor air biological standards, higher concentration of indoor air bacterial load was found in Gondar University teaching hospital. The higher bacterial load may be due to temperature, humidity, presence of unhygienic attached toilets, poor waste management system and poor ventilation system. Therefore, attention must be given to control those environmental factors which favor the growth and multiplication of microbes in indoor environment. In addition, also the ventilation condition, cleanliness of toilets, sweeping methods and waste disposal system of the compound should be improved.

Environmental and host-related determinants of tuberculosis in Metema district, north-west Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Each year, one third of the world's population is estimated to be infected with tuberculosis (TB). Globally in 2011, there were an estimated 8.7 million TB cases that resulted in 1.4 million deaths. In Ethiopia, TB is the leading cause of morbidity and the third most common cause of hospital admission. The aim of this study is to assess environmental and host-related determinants of TB in Metema district, north-west Ethiopia. METHODS: A community-based unmatched case-control study was conducted from March 12 to April 5, 2013. The study population included 655 subjects (218 cases and 437 controls in a ratio of 1:2). Cases were TB patients selected from a total of 475 cases registered and treated from March 2012 to February 2013 at the Metema District Hospital DOTS (direct observation therapy, short-course) clinic and selected randomly using a lottery method. Controls were people who had had no productive cough for at least 2 weeks previously and were selected from the community. RESULTS: A total of 655 respondents (218 cases and 437 controls) participated in the study. In multivariate analysis, being illiterate (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 3.65, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.31-5.76), households containing more than four family members (AOR 3.09, 95% CI 2.07-4.61), living space <4 m(2) per person (AOR 3.11, 95% CI 2.09-4.63), a nonseparated kitchen (AOR 3.27, 95% CI 1.99-5.35), history of contact with a TB patient (AOR 2.05, 95% CI 1.35-3.12), a house with no ceiling (AOR 1.46, 95% CI 1.07-2.21), and absence of windows (AOR 4.42, 95% CI 2.46-7.95) were independently associated with the development of TB. CONCLUSION: This study identified that the number of family members in the household, educational status, room space per person, history of contact with a TB patient, availability and number of windows, location of kitchen facilities within the house, and whether or not the house had a ceiling were independently associated with contracting TB. Every community should construct houses with the kitchen separated from the main living room, and include a ceiling and more than one window. Cigarette smoking should be avoided since this also contributed to the risk of transmission of TB. Further research focusing on coinfection with human immunodeficiency virus, helminth burden, and malnutrition is important for the control and prevention of TB.

The potential of biogas production from municipal solid waste in a tropical climate.

The objective of this study was to estimate the potential of organic municipal solid waste generated in an urban setting in a tropical climate to produce biogas. Five different categories of wastes were considered: fruit waste, food waste, yard waste, paper waste, and mixed waste. These fractions were assessed for their efficiency for biogas production in a laboratory-scale batch digester for a total period of 8 weeks at a temperature of 15-30 °C. During this period, fruit waste, food waste, yard waste, paper waste, and mixed waste were observed to produce 0.15, 0.17, 0.10, 0.08, and 0.15 m(3) of biogas per kilogram of volatile solids, respectively. The biogas produced and caloric value of each feedstock was in the range of 1.25 × 10(-3) m(3) (17 kWh)/cap/day (paper waste) to 15 × 10(-3) m(3) (170 kWh)/cap/day (mixed waste). Paper waste produced the least (<1×10(-3)(<17.8 kWh)/cap/day), and mixed waste produced the highest methane yield (10 × 10(-3) m(3) (178 kWh)/cap/day). Thus, mixed waste was found to be more efficient than other feedstocks for biogas and methane production; this was mainly related to the better C/N ratio in mixed waste. Taking the total waste production in Jimma into account, the total mixed organic solid waste could produce 865 × 10(3) m(3) (5.4 m(3)/capita) of biogas or 537 × 10(3) m(3) (3.4 m(3)/capita) of methane per year. The total caloric value of methane production potential from mixed organic municipal solid waste was many times higher than the total energy requirement of the area.